(Based on Arthur Compton-Rickett’s A History of English Literature)
Introduction
The Age of Chaucer (1340–1400) occupies a very important place in the history of English literature. It marks the transition from the Middle Ages to the beginning of the Renaissance spirit. During this period, England experienced remarkable changes in politics, society, religion, economy, and language. These changes greatly influenced literature and gave rise to one of the greatest poets in English literature—Geoffrey Chaucer.
This age is named after Geoffrey Chaucer, who is regarded as the Father of English Poetry because he established English as a respected literary language and introduced realism, humour, and psychological insight into English poetry.
1. Socio-Political and Historical Background
To understand the literature of the Age of Chaucer, it is important to understand the historical events that shaped people’s lives.
A. Decline of Feudalism
During the Middle Ages, England followed the feudal system. Under this system:
- The king owned all land.
- Powerful nobles received land from the king.
- Peasants (called serfs) worked on the land.
- In return, the nobles promised military service to the king.
The feudal system had existed for centuries, but during the fourteenth century it began to weaken.
Several factors caused its decline:
The Black Death (1348–1349)
One of the most disastrous events in English history was the Black Death, a deadly plague that reached England in 1348.
Its effects were enormous:
- Nearly one-third of England’s population died.
- Farms were left without workers.
- Labour became scarce.
- Workers demanded higher wages.
- Landowners were forced to pay more.
As workers realized their importance, they became less willing to accept the harsh conditions of feudal life.
The Peasants’ Revolt (1381)
The growing dissatisfaction of ordinary people finally resulted in the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, led by Wat Tyler.
The peasants demanded:
- Better wages
- Lower taxes
- Freedom from feudal obligations
- Equal treatment under the law
Although the revolt was eventually suppressed, it showed that the feudal system was weakening and that common people had begun to demand justice.
B. Religious Discontent and Moral Reform
The medieval Church was one of the most powerful institutions in Europe.
However, during Chaucer’s age many people became unhappy with it because:
- Many priests were poorly educated.
- Church officials became wealthy and luxurious.
- Some clergy were dishonest.
- Religious offices were sometimes sold.
- Moral corruption became common.
John Wyclif and the Lollards
One of the greatest critics of the Church was John Wyclif.
He believed:
- Every person should be able to read the Bible.
- The Bible should be available in English.
- The Pope should not have unlimited authority.
- The Church should return to the simple teachings of Christ.
His followers became known as the Lollards.
Although Wyclif’s ideas were opposed by the Church, they later influenced the Protestant Reformation.
C. Rise of English Nationalism
Another important event was the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) between England and France.
The war strengthened national feeling among the English people.
As a result:
- English identity became stronger.
- English replaced French in many official institutions.
- English became the language of education, law, and government.
- Writers increasingly chose English instead of French or Latin.
This development made it possible for Chaucer to write great literature in English.
2. Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1340–1400)
Life
Geoffrey Chaucer was born around 1340.
He served in many important positions:
- Soldier
- Courtier
- Diplomat
- Customs officer
- Member of Parliament
His travels to France and Italy exposed him to European literature and culture.
Because of his varied experiences, Chaucer knew people from every social class.
This broad knowledge helped him create realistic characters.
For this reason, he is called the Father of English Poetry.
3. Chaucer’s Literary Development
Chaucer’s career can be divided into three periods.
I. The French Period
Characteristics
During his early years, Chaucer was greatly influenced by French literature.
His poetry contains:
- Courtly love
- Romance
- Allegory
- Dream visions
- Elegant language
Major Works
The Roman de la Rose
This was a translation and adaptation of the famous French poem.
It introduced Chaucer to allegorical writing.
The Book of the Duchess
This poem was written in memory of Blanche, Duchess of Lancaster.
It is a dream vision expressing sorrow over the death of a noble lady.
The poem shows Chaucer’s early mastery of graceful expression.
II. The Italian Period
During his diplomatic visits to Italy, Chaucer met the works of:
- Dante
- Petrarch
- Boccaccio
These writers greatly influenced him.
He moved beyond simple romance and began writing with greater realism and psychological understanding.
Characteristics
- Rich storytelling
- Deep emotions
- Psychological realism
- Human character
- Classical influence
Major Works
Troilus and Criseyde
This is considered one of Chaucer’s greatest poems.
It tells the tragic love story of Troilus and Criseyde during the Trojan War.
The poem is admired for:
- Psychological depth
- Beautiful characterization
- Emotional realism
The House of Fame
A dream vision exploring:
- Fame
- Reputation
- Fortune
- Human ambition
The Legend of Good Women
This work tells the stories of famous women from mythology who remained faithful in love.
III. The English Period
This is Chaucer’s mature period.
His writing became:
- More realistic
- More humorous
- More natural
- More English in spirit
His masterpiece belongs to this period.
4. The Canterbury Tales
Introduction
The Canterbury Tales is Chaucer’s greatest achievement and one of the finest works in English literature.
It presents a vivid picture of fourteenth-century English society.
The Frame Story
The story begins at the Tabard Inn in Southwark.
A group of about thirty pilgrims are travelling to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury.
The innkeeper, Harry Bailey, suggests a storytelling contest.
Each pilgrim is supposed to tell:
- Two stories on the way to Canterbury
- Two stories on the return journey
Although Chaucer planned around 120 tales, he completed only 24 tales.
5. Characters in The Canterbury Tales
One of Chaucer’s greatest achievements is his realistic portrayal of people from different classes.
Unlike medieval allegories, his characters are living human beings.
A. The Knight
- Brave
- Honest
- Humble
- Ideal medieval soldier
He represents true chivalry.
B. The Squire
The Knight’s son.
He is:
- Young
- Romantic
- Handsome
- Interested in music and poetry
C. The Prioress
She is:
- Polite
- Well-mannered
- Gentle
However, she is more concerned with fashionable behaviour than with religious duties.
D. The Monk
Instead of living a simple religious life,
he enjoys:
- Hunting
- Rich food
- Fine clothes
- Luxury
Chaucer gently criticizes him.
E. The Friar
He is supposed to help the poor.
Instead:
- He is greedy.
- He accepts money for religious services.
- He prefers rich people.
F. The Pardoner
Perhaps the most corrupt church official.
He sells fake religious relics and indulgences simply to earn money.
He openly admits his dishonesty.
G. The Parson
Unlike many churchmen,
the Parson is:
- Honest
- Humble
- Kind
- Truly religious
He practices what he preaches.
H. The Miller
A strong, rough man.
He enjoys:
- Drinking
- Jokes
- Practical tricks
He represents the lively common people.
I. The Clerk
A poor Oxford student.
He loves:
- Learning
- Books
- Knowledge
He spends all his money on books rather than comforts.
J. The Merchant
He appears wealthy,
but actually lives in debt.
This reflects the uncertain world of medieval trade.
K. The Wife of Bath
One of Chaucer’s most memorable characters.
She is:
- Independent
- Intelligent
- Outspoken
- Experienced
She has been married five times.
She speaks confidently about marriage and women’s rights, making her one of the earliest strong female voices in English literature.
6. Literary Features of The Canterbury Tales
Realism
Chaucer presents real human beings rather than idealized heroes.
His characters have:
- Strengths
- Weaknesses
- Virtues
- Faults
Humour
His humour is gentle rather than cruel.
He laughs at human weaknesses without hating people.
Irony
Chaucer often praises characters in a way that actually exposes their faults.
This subtle irony makes his satire more effective.
Human Sympathy
Even when criticizing corruption, Chaucer remains compassionate.
He understands human nature instead of simply condemning it.
Language
He writes in simple, natural English.
His language sounds conversational and lively.
Heroic Couplet
Most of The Canterbury Tales is written in heroic couplets.
A heroic couplet consists of:
- Two consecutive rhyming lines
- Written in iambic pentameter
- Rhyme scheme: AA BB CC
This metre later became very popular in English poetry.
7. Other Important Writers of the Age
Although Chaucer dominated the period, several other important writers contributed significantly.
William Langland (c.1332–1400)
Major Work
Piers Plowman
Style
- Written in alliterative verse
- Does not use rhyme
- Follows the old Anglo-Saxon tradition
Themes
The poem criticizes:
- Social injustice
- Corrupt priests
- Dishonest rulers
- Greedy landlords
The central character, Piers, is an honest ploughman who represents hard work, truth, and Christian morality.
Langland wanted society to return to honesty and moral values.
John Wyclif (c.1320–1384)
John Wyclif was:
- Scholar
- Religious reformer
- Prose writer
His greatest contribution was encouraging the translation of the Bible into English.
His work:
- Made religion accessible to ordinary people.
- Strengthened English prose.
- Encouraged independent religious thinking.
John Gower (c.1330–1408)
Major Work
Confessio Amantis (The Lover’s Confession)
The poem contains many stories from:
- Classical mythology
- Medieval legends
- Moral literature
Compared with Chaucer:
- Gower is more serious.
- He is more moralistic.
- His poetry is less humorous.
Nevertheless, he helped prove that English was capable of producing refined literary works.
8. Language and Poetry During the Age
The Age of Chaucer witnessed important changes in English language and poetry.
Development of English
Three languages were commonly used:
| Language | Main Use |
| Latin | Religion and scholarship |
| French | Court, law, and nobility |
| English | Common people and gradually literature |
Gradually, English became the national language.
East Midland Dialect
Chaucer wrote mainly in the East Midland dialect, which was spoken around London.
Because of his popularity:
- It became the basis of Standard English.
- Later writers adopted it.
- It influenced Modern English.
Changes in Poetry
Earlier English poetry mainly used:
- Alliteration
- Strong rhythm
- Few rhymes
Under French and Italian influence, poets introduced:
- End rhyme
- Regular metre
- Stanzas
- Heroic couplets
- Syllable-based verse
These innovations transformed English poetry.
9. Characteristics of the Age of Chaucer
The Age of Chaucer can be identified by the following features:
- Rise of English as a literary language.
- Decline of feudalism and growth of the middle class.
- Religious criticism and demand for reform.
- Growth of English national identity.
- Realistic portrayal of ordinary people.
- Development of characterisation.
- Gentle humour and satire.
- Humanism in literature.
- Influence of French and Italian literature.
- Growth of narrative poetry.
- Establishment of the East Midland dialect as the standard literary language.
- Transition from alliterative verse to rhymed metres and heroic couplets.
Conclusion
The Age of Chaucer is one of the most significant periods in English literary history because it marks the beginning of mature English literature. Political changes, the decline of feudalism, religious unrest, and the rise of English nationalism created a new cultural atmosphere. Geoffrey Chaucer transformed this changing society into literature by portraying people from every class with remarkable realism, sympathy, humour, and psychological insight. His masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, not only reflects the life of fourteenth-century England but also established English as a major literary language. Alongside Chaucer, writers such as William Langland, John Wyclif, and John Gower enriched English literature through moral, religious, and narrative writings. For these reasons, the Age of Chaucer is rightly regarded as the foundation of later English poetry and prose.